价值理论(商品为什么这个价？“经济学之父”亚当斯密为你解读劳动价值理论)

Chapter VI. Of the Component Parts of the Price of Commodities 第六章、论商品价格的组成部分

In that early and rude state of society which precedes both the accumulation of stock and the appropriation of land, the proportion between the quantities of labour necessary for acquiring different objects seems to be the only circumstance which can afford any rule for exchanging them for one another. If among a nation of hunters, for example, it usually costs twice the labour to kill a beaver which it does to kill a deer, one beaver should naturally exchange for or be worth two deer. It is natural that what is usually the produce of two days' or two hours'labour, should be worth double of what is usually the produce of one day's or one hour's labour.

在早期的野蛮社会，资本积累和土地私有尚未发生，获取各种物品所需要的劳动数量之间的比例，似乎是各种物品相互交换的唯一标准和依据。例如，假设在以狩猎为生的国家中，捕杀一头海狸所需要的劳动往往是捕杀一头鹿所需劳动力的两倍，那么，一头海狸一头就能交换两头鹿，或者说值两头鹿。所以，两天的劳动所得，其价值通常是一天劳动所得的两倍，两个小时的劳动所得，其价值自然是一个小时劳动所得的两倍。

If the one species of labour should be more severe than the other, some allowance will naturally be made for this superior hardship; and the produce of one hour's labour in the one way may frequently exchange for that of two hours' labour in the other.

如果一种劳动比另一种劳动更为艰苦，那么对于这种辛苦自然要给予一定的补贴。因此，一个小时的更为艰苦的劳动所得，往往可以交换两个小时艰苦程度较低的劳动所得。

Or if the one species of labour requires an uncommon degree of dexterity and ingenuity, the esteem which men have for such talents, will naturally give a value to their produce, superior to what would be due to the time employed about it. Such talents can seldom be acquired but in consequence of long application, and the superior value of their produce may frequently be no more than a reasonable compensation for the time and labour which must be spent in acquiring them. In the advanced state of society, allowances of this kind, for superior hardship and superior skill, are commonly made in the wages of labour; and something of the same kind must probably have taken place in its earliest and rudest period.

或者说，如果某种劳动需要劳动者具有超乎寻常的熟练程度和技巧，那么人们通常对拥有这种技能的人比较尊重，于是自然对他的劳动所得给予超过他劳动时间所应得的价值。要想获得这种技能，常常需要经过多年的艰苦实践，因此对于这些人的劳动所得给予较高的价值，只不过是对劳动者获得这些技能所耗费的劳动与时间以合理的报酬。在进步的社会，人们通常以劳动工资的形式对特别艰苦的工作和需要很高技能的工作给予补贴。早期的野蛮社会可能就有过此类做法。

In this state of things, the whole produce of labour belongs to the labourer; and the quantity of labour commonly employed in acquiring or producing any commodity, is the only circumstance which can regulate the quantity of labour which it ought commonly to purchase, command, or exchange for.

在这种情况下，全部劳动所得都属于劳动者自己。一种商品通常可以购买或支配的劳动数量，只由获得或生产这种商品所需要的劳动数量来决定。

As soon as stock has accumulated in the hands of particular persons, some of them will naturally employ it in setting to work industrious people, whom they will supply with materials and subsistence, in order to make a profit by the sale of their work, or by what their labour adds to the value of the materials. In exchanging the complete manufacture either for money, for labour, or for other goods, over and above what may be sufficient to pay the price of the materials, and the wages of the workmen, something must be given for the profits of the undertaker of the work who hazards his stock in this adventure. The value which the workmen add to the materials, therefore, resolves itself in this case into two parts, of which the one pays their wages, the other the profits of their employer upon the whole stock of materials and wages which he advanced. He could have no interest to employ them, unless he expected from the sale of their work something more than what was sufficient to replace his stock to him; and he could have no interest to employ a great stock rather than a small one, unless his profits were to bear some proportion to the extent of his stock.

资本一旦在个别人手中积聚起来后，他们当中自然就会有一些人，运用手中的资本，推动勤劳的人们去工作，为这些人提供生产资料和生活资料，并通过售卖这些人的劳动产品，或者通过这些人的劳动使原材料价值增值的方式，获取利润。在用这些人的劳动产品交换货币、劳动或其他产品时，所得收入除了足够支付原材料的价格和生产者的劳动工资外，还须剩余一部分作为利润给予投入资本的企业家。所以，在这种情况下，劳动者对原材料增加的价值就分为两个部分，一部分支付劳动者自己的工资，另一部分是雇主因提前预支原材料和工资所投入的全部资本的利润。除非雇主认为劳动者的劳动产品经过售卖之后的所得，能多于他提前预支的资本，否则他是不会再对雇佣工人感兴趣的。而且，如果雇主所得的利润不能和他预支的资本额保持某种比例，他也不会再有兴趣进行大的投资，只会进行小额投资。

The profits of stock, it may perhaps be thought, are only a different name for the wages of a particular sort of labour, the labour of inspection and direction. They are, however, altogether different, are regulated by quite different principles, and bear no proportion to the quantity, the hardship, or the ingenuity of this supposed labour of inspection and direction. They are regulated altogether by the value of the stock employed, and are greater or smaller in proportion to the extent of this stock. Let us suppose, for example, that in some particular place, where the common annual profits of manufacturing stock are ten per cent, there are two different manufactures, in each of which twenty workmen are employed at the rate of fifteen pounds a year each, or at the expence of three hundred a year in each manufactory. Let us suppose, too, that the coarse materials annually wrought up in the one cost only seven hundred pounds, while the finer materials in the other cost seven thousand. The capital annually employed in the one will in this case amount only to one thousand pounds; whereas that employed in the other will amount to seven thousand three hundred pounds. At the rate of ten per cent, therefore, the undertaker of the one will expect a yearly profit of about one hundred pounds only; while that of the other will expect about seven hundred and thirty pounds. But though their profits are so very different, their labour of inspection and direction may be either altogether or very nearly the same. In many great works, almost the whole labour of this kind is committed to some principal clerk. His wages properly express the value of this labour of inspection and direction. Though in settling them some regard is had commonly, not only to his labour and skill, but to the trust which is reposed in him, yet they never bear any regular proportion to the capital of which he oversees the management; and the owner of this capital, though he is thus discharged of almost all labour, still expects that his profits should bear a regular proportion to his capital. In the price of commodities, therefore, the profits of stock constitute a component part altogether different from the wages of labour, and regulated by quite different principles.

也许可以这样想，资本的利润只是某种特定工作所得工资的别名罢了，或者说，只不过是雇主监督和指挥劳动者所得的工资而已。但利润与工资是截然不同的，它们受两个完全不同的原则的支配，而且资本的利润同雇主监督指挥劳动者劳动的数量、强度与技巧不成比例。利润完全是受雇主投入资本的价值支配的，它的多少与投入资本的大小成一定比例。假设在某个地方，制造业资本的普通年利润为10％。在该地有这样两个不同的制造厂，各雇佣劳动者20人，工资每人每年均为15镑，即每年两制造厂均需支付工资300镑。假设其中一家制造厂每年所加工的粗糙原料只值700镑，另一家制造厂所加工的精细原料值7,000镑。在这种情况下，第一个制造厂所使用的资金只有1,000英镑，而第二家的为7,300英镑。在年利润为10％的情况下，第一家制造厂预期的利润不过100镑而已，而第二家制造厂的企业家每年却预期得到730镑的利润。虽然两个企业家所得利润相差巨大，他们对劳动的监督指挥却没有大的差别，甚至完全一样。在许多大工厂里，这种工作几乎全由某个重要职员来做。这个职员的工资，恰当表示了监督指挥这一特别劳动的价值。在决定该重要职员的工资时，通常不仅要考虑他的劳动和技巧，而且还要考虑他所担负的责任。但是，职员的工资和他所管理监督的资本却并不保持一定的比例。而这资本所有者，虽然通过这种方式几乎不用付出任何劳动，却希望其利润与其资本保持一定的比例。所以，在商品价格中，资本利润成为一个与劳动工资截然不同的组成部分，而且受全然不同的原则支配。

In this state of things, the whole produce of labour does not always belong to the labourer. He must in most cases share it with the owner of the stock which employs him. Neither is the quantity of labour commonly employed in acquiring or producing any commodity, the only circumstance which can regulate the quantity which it ought commonly to purchase, command or exchange for. An additional quantity, it is evident, must be due for the profits of the stock which advanced the wages and furnished the materials of that labour.

在这种情况下，劳动的全部所得未必都属于劳动者。在大多数情况下，劳动者要与雇佣他的资本所有者共享劳动成果。通常取得或生产任何一种商品所需投入的劳动数量，并不能单独决定这种商品一般所应交换、支配或购买的劳动数量。很明显，还需考虑另一个因素，那就是雇主对取得或生产商品的劳动者所垫付的工资以及给劳动者提供材料资本所得的利润。

As soon as the land of any country has all become private property, the landlords, like all other men, love to reap where they never sowed, and demand a rent even for its natural produce. The wood of the forest, the grass of the field, and all the natural fruits of the earth, which, when land was in common, cost the labourer only the trouble of gathering them, come, even to him, to have an additional price fixed upon them. He must then pay for the licence to gather them; and must give up to the landlord a portion of what his labour either collects or produces. This portion, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of this portion, constitutes the rent of land, and in the price of the greater part of commodities makes a third component part.

一个国家的土地一旦完全成为私有财产，土地所有者就像其他所有人一样，都想不劳而获，甚至连土地的自然生产物也想收取地租。森林里的木材，田野里的青草，大地上所有的自然果实，在土地公有的阶段，只需劳动者花些力气去采摘，但现在劳动者除了要出力外，还需付出额外的代价。劳动者必须支付一定费用，才能获得采摘的许可，而且他还必须将一部分劳动所得交给土地所有者。这一部分所得，或者说，这一部分的价格，便构成了土地的地租。这是大多数商品价格的第三个组成部分。

The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command. Labour measures the value not only of that part of price which resolves itself into labour, but of that which resolves itself into rent, and of that which resolves itself into profit.

必须要指出的一点是，商品价格的这三个组成部分，其各自的真实价值是由各自所能购买或所能支配的劳动数量来衡量的。而购买或支配的劳动，不仅衡量价格中构成劳动的那一部分的价值，而且还衡量价格中构成地租和利润的那两部分的价值。

In every society the price of every commodity finally resolves itself into some one or other, or all of those three parts; and in every improved society, all the three enter more or less, as component parts, into the price of the far greater part of commodities.

在所有社会中，商品价格最终都要分解成为这三个部分其中的一部分或是全部。在所有进步的社会，这三个部分都或多或少地成为大多数商品价格的组成部分。

In the price of corn, for example, one part pays the rent of the landlord, another pays the wages or maintenance of the labourers and labouring cattle employed in producing it, and the third pays the profit of the farmer. These three parts seem either immediately or ultimately to make up the whole price of corn. A fourth part, it may perhaps be thought, is necessary for replacing the stock of the farmer, or for compensating the wear and tear of his labouring cattle, and other instruments of husbandry. But it must be considered that the price of any instrument of husbandry, such as a labouring horse, is itself made up of the same three parts; the rent of the land upon which he is reared, the labour of tending and rearing him, and the profits of the farmer who advances both the rent of this land, and the wages of this labour. Though the price of the corn, therefore, may pay the price as well as the maintenance of the horse, the whole price still resolves itself either immediately or ultimately into the same three parts of rent, labour, and profit.

例如，在谷物价格中，一部分用来支付土地所有者的地租，一部分用来支付劳动者的工资、生活费用以及生产中所使用的牲畜的费用，第三部分用来支付农场主的利润。这三个部分，要么直接构成谷物的全部价格，要么最终构成谷物的全部价格。也许有人认为，还应该有第四部分，用来偿还农场主的资本，即用来支付农场主对于牲畜或农具的消耗。但是需要注意的一点是，任何农业用具的价格，比如用作生产的马，本身就由上述那三个部分构成：用来饲养马的土地的地租，饲养或照料马所需劳动的工资，再加上农场主垫付地租和工资资本应得的利润。因此，虽然谷物价格的一部分用来支付马的价格和维持费，但全部价格直接或最终仍由地租、劳动及利润这三部分组成。

In the price of flour or meal, we must add to the price of the corn, the profits of the miller, and the wages of his servants; in the price of the bread, the profits of the baker, and the wages of his servants; and in the price of both, the labour of transporting the corn from the house of the farmer to that of the miller, and from that of the miller to that of the baker, together with the profits of those who advance the wages of that labour.

就面粉价格来说，我们必须将谷物价格与磨坊主的利润及其雇员的工资加在一起。就面包价格说，我们必须加上面包师的利润及其雇员的工资。但将谷物从农场主家中运送到磨坊厂，将面粉从磨坊厂运送到面包师手中，又需要一定的劳动。这种劳动的工资，和垫付这种劳动工资所应得的利润，也必须加到这两种商品的价格内。

The price of flax resolves itself into the same three parts as that of corn. In the price of linen we must add to this price the wages of the flax-dresser, of the spinner, of the weaver, of the bleacher, etc. , together with the profits of their respective employers.

同谷物价格一样，亚麻价格也可分为三个组成部分。在亚麻的价格中，我们必须把理麻工、纺工、织工、漂白工的工资，与他们各自雇主因垫付资本所应得的利润加起来。

As any particular commodity comes to be more manufactured, that part of the price which resolves itself into wages and profit, comes to be greater in proportion to that which resolves itself into rent. In the progress of the manufacture, not only the number of profits increase, but every subsequent profit is greater than the foregoing; because the capital from which it is derived must always be greater. The capital which employs the weavers, for example, must be greater than that which employs the spinners; because it not only replaces that capital with its profits, but pays, besides, the wages of the weavers; and the profits must always bear some proportion to the capital.

任何一种商品，其制作工序越接近尾声，价格中工资和利润所占的比例，就比地租所占的比例越大。随着制造项目的进行，涉及利润的项目越来越多，而且后一阶段的制造者，总能比前一阶段的制造者得到更多的利润。这是因为后一阶段的制造者总要比前一阶段的制造者投入更多的资本。例如，雇佣织工的资本，必须大于雇佣纺工的资本。因为，雇佣织工的资本，除了要支付雇佣纺工的资本及利润，还要支付织工的工资。再者，利润与资本一定总保持着一定的比例。

In the most improved societies, however, there are always a few commodities of which the price resolves itself into two parts only, the wages of labour, and the profits of stock; and a still smaller number in which it consists altogether in the wages of labour. In the price of sea-fish, for example, one part pays the labour of the fishermen, and the other the profits of the capital employed in the fishery. Rent very seldom makes any part of it, though it does sometimes, as I shall shew hereafter. It is otherwise, at least through the greater part of Europe, in river fisheries. A salmon fishery pays a rent, and rent, though it cannot well be called the rent of land, makes a part of the price of a salmon as well as wages and profit. In some parts of Scotland a few poor people make a trade of gathering, along the sea-shore, those little variegated stones commonly known by the name of Scotch Pebbles. The price which is paid to them by the stone-cutter is altogether the wages of their labour; neither rent nor profit makes any part of it.

然而，即使是在最进步的社会里，也存在少数商品，其价格只由劳动工资及资本利润两个部分构成。还有更少数的商品，价格仅由劳动工资构成。例如，海鱼的价格，通常只由两个部分组成：一部分用来支付渔夫的劳动，另一部分用来支付捕鱼业所投资本的利润。虽然有时这类价格中，还有一部分用来支付地租，但并不普遍。我在以后的章节中会对此特别说明。内河渔业的情况完全不同，至少对于欧洲大部分地区来说是这样的。鲑鱼业要支付租金，虽然这一租金在严格意义上来说不能被称为土地地租，但与工资和利润一样，是鲑鱼价格的组成部分。在苏格兰某些地方，一些穷人在海岸边收集色彩斑斓的小石头，这种小石头通常叫做苏格兰玛瑙。雕石业者付给这些穷人的价格，只是他们的劳动工资，既不包括地租，也不包括资本利润。

But the whole price of any commodity must still finally resolve itself into some one or other, or all of those three parts; as whatever part of it remains after paying the rent of the land, and the price of the whole labour employed in raising, manufacturing, and bringing it to market, must necessarily be profit to somebody.

无论是哪种商品，其全部价格最终一定由那三个部分或其中一个部分构成。在商品价格中，除去土地的地租以及商品生产、制造和运往市场所需要的全部劳动的价格外，剩余的部分一定是某个人的利润。

As the price or exchangeable value of every particular commodity, taken separately, resolves itself into some one or other, or all of those three parts; so that of all the commodities which compose the whole annual produce of the labour of every country, taken complexly, must resolve itself into the same three parts, and be parcelled out among different inhabitants of the country, either as the wages of their labour, the profits of their stock, or the rent of their land. The whole of what is annually either collected or produced by the labour of every society, or what comes to the same thing, the whole price of it, is in this manner originally distributed among some of its different members. Wages, profit, and rent, are the three original sources of all revenue as well as of all exchangeable value. All other revenue is ultimately derived from some one or other of these.

就每一件商品而言，其价格或交换价值，都由那三个部分或其中一部分构成。每个国家所有的商品构成其全部劳动年产物，而所有商品的价格，一定都由三个部分构成，而且这三个部分以劳动工资、土地地租或资本利润的形式在国内不同居民间分配。在每一个社会中，每年劳动所采集或生产的全部物品，或者说这些物品的全部价格，起初就是以这种方式在社会不同成员间进行分配。工资、利润和地租，是所有收入和所有可交换价值的三个最初来源。所有其他收入最终都来自这三个来源中的一种。

Whoever derives his revenue from a fund which is his own, must draw it either from his labour, from his stock, or from his land. The revenue derived from labour is called wages. That derived from stock, by the person who manages or employs it, is called profit. That derived from it by the person who does not employ it himself, but lends it to another, is called the interest or the use of money. It is the compensation which the borrower pays to the lender, for the profit which he has an opportunity of making by the use of the money. Part of that profit naturally belongs to the borrower, who runs the risk and takes the trouble of employing it; and part to the lender, who affords him the opportunity of making this profit. The interest of money is always a derivative revenue, which, if it is not paid from the profit which is made by the use of the money, must be paid from some other source of revenue, unless perhaps the borrower is a spendthrift, who contracts a second debt in order to pay the interest of the first. The revenue which proceeds altogether from land, is called rent, and belongs to the landlord. The revenue of the farmer is derived partly from his labour, and partly from his stock. To him, land is only the instrument which enables him to earn the wages of this labour, and to make the profits of this stock. All taxes, and all the revenue which is founded upon them, all salaries, pensions, and annuities of every kind, are ultimately derived from some one or other of those three original sources of revenue, and are paid either immediately or mediately from the wages of labour, the profits of stock, or the rent of land.

任何一个人，如果从自己的资金中获得收入，那么他的收入要么来自他的劳动，要么来自他的资本或土地。由劳动获得的收入叫工资，由经营或使用资本获得的收入叫利润。将资本转借他人，由此获得的收入，叫货币的利息或佣金。这是借款人付给贷款人的一种补偿，因为借款人通过使用贷款人的钱获得了一定的利润。这种利润一部分当然属于借款人，因为他承担了使用资本的风险和麻烦，另一部分则属于贷款人，因为正是因为他，借款人才有机会获取利润。利息总是一种派生的收入，支付利息所用的款项，如果不是来自借款人通过使用借款而得到的利润，那么一定来自他其他的某种收入，除非借款人挥霍无度，靠举借新债来偿还旧债的利息。完全来自土地的收入，被称为地租，它属于土地所有者。农场主的收入，一部分来自他的劳动，另一部分来自他的资本。对于农场主来说，土地只不过是他赚取劳动工资和获得资本利润的工具。所有的赋税，以及所有源自赋税的收入，所有俸金、养老金和各种年金，最终都来自于这三种原始收入来源中的一种，并且直接或间接地以劳动工资、资本利润或土地地租的方式支付。

When those three different sorts of revenue belong to different persons, they are readily distinguished; but when they belong to the same they are sometimes confounded with one another, at least in common language.

当这三种不同的收入属于不同的人时，我们很容易区分它们，但当它们属于同一个人时，有时就会互相混淆，至少按通俗的说法是这样的。

A gentleman who farms a part of his own estate, after paying the expence of cultivation, should gain both the rent of the landlord and the profit of the farmer. He is apt to denominate, however, his whole gain, profit, and thus confounds rent with profit, at least in common language. The greater part of our North American and West Indian planters are in this situation. They farm, the greater part of them, their own estates, and accordingly we seldom hear of the rent of a plantation, but frequently of its profit.

如果某一位乡村绅士在自己的一部分土地上耕作，那么他在支付了耕作费用后，应该既获得土地所有者的地租，又获得农场主的利润。但他往往把自己的全部所得笼统地叫做利润，这样他就混淆了地租和利润，至少按通俗的说法是这样的。我国在北美洲和西印度群岛的大部分种植园主就是这样做的。他们大部分人在自己的土地耕种，所以我们常听他们说种植园的利润，却很少听他们说种植园的地租。

Common farmers seldom employ any overseer to direct the general operations of the farm. They generally, too, work a good deal with their own hands, as ploughmen, harrowers, etc. What remains of the crop after paying the rent, therefore, should not only replace to them their stock employed in cultivation, together with its ordinary profits, but pay them the wages which are due to them, both as labourers and overseers. Whatever remains, however, after paying the rent and keeping up the stock, is called profit. But wages evidently make a part of it. The farmer, by saving these wages, must necessarily gain them. Wages, therefore, are in this case confounded with profit.

普通的农场主很少雇佣监工来指导农场的总体工作。他们常常亲自做很多工作，如犁田、耙地等等。所以，谷物的销售所得，除了支付地租外，剩余的部分不仅仅要支付耕种过程中使用的资本和资本利润，而且还要支付他们自己作为劳动者和监工所应得的工资。但是，农场主却把收回资本和支付地租以后剩余的所有部分，统称为利润。这利润显然有一部分是由工资构成的。农场主由于自己劳作而节省了这部分工资，必然要在谷物销售所得中获得这部分工资。因此，在这种情况下，他们又将工资和利润混淆了。

An independent manufacturer, who has stock enough both to purchase materials, and to maintain himself till he can carry his work to market, should gain both the wages of a journeyman who works under a master, and the profit which that master makes by the sale of the journeyman's work. His whole gains, however, are commonly called profit, and wages are, in this case too, confounded with profit.

假使一个独立的制造者，在将商品运送至市场之前，拥有足够的资本来购买原材料并维持生活，那么，他所获得的收入应该包括两项：一是像在老板手下工作的工人一样领取的工资，二是作为老板销售工人（就是他自己）的劳动产品所获得的利润。但人们通常将他这两项收入，也统称为利润。在这种情况下，工资和利润也混为一谈了。

A gardener who cultivates his own garden with his own hands, unites in his own person the three different characters of landlord, farmer, and labourer. His produce, therefore, should pay him the rent of the first, the profit of the second, and the wages of the third. The whole, however, is commonly considered as the earnings of his labour. Both rent and profit are, in this case, confounded with wages.

一个亲自经营自己花园的花匠，往往身兼三职：土地所有者、农场主和劳动者。所以，他的产品应该首先支付他作为土地所有者的地租，然后支付他作为农场主的利润，最后支付他作为劳动者的工资。但通常人们却把他的全部收入看作他作为劳动者的劳动所得。在这种情况下，地租和利润，又和工资混淆了。

As in a civilised country there are but few commodities of which the exchangeable value arises from labour only, rent and profit contributing largely to that of the far greater part of them, so the annual produce of its labour will always be sufficient to purchase or command a much greater quantity of labour than what was employed in raising, preparing, and bringing that produce to market. If the society were annually to employ all the labour which it can annually purchase, as the quantity of labour would increase greatly every year, so the produce of every succeeding year would be of vastly greater value than that of the foregoing. But there is no country in which the whole annual produce is employed in maintaining the industrious. The idle everywhere consume a great part of it; and according to the different proportions in which it is annually divided between those two different orders of people, its ordinary or average value must either annually increase, or diminish, or continue the same from one year to another.

在文明的过度内，很少有商品的交换价值仅由劳动产生，大部分商品的交换价值主要来自利润和地租，所以，社会全部劳动年产物所能购买或支配的劳动数量，总是远远超过这些年产物生产、制造乃至运送市场所需要的劳动数量。假设这个国家每年都能够运用其当年购买的所有劳动，那么，劳动数量将年年增加，且增加的幅度很大，而后一年的就会比前一年的产品具有更大的价值。但是，无论在哪一个国家，全部年产物并不都用来维持勤劳的阶层。无论在哪个国家，每年都有大部分生产物由那些有闲阶层消费。根据年产物在这两个阶层中的分配比例不同，一国年产物的普通或平均价值要么逐年增加，要么逐年减少，要么保持不变。